Inquisition 2
Nach Joe Majerus
Die Inquisition - Eine facettenreiche Institution
Table of Contents 1.) Introduction (1) 2.) The Medieval Inquisition (2) 3.) The Spanish Inquisition (3) 4.) The Portuguese Inquisition (5) 5.) The Roman Inquisition (5) 6.) Conclusion (6) 7.) Bibliography (8)
Einleitung
Wenn man/frau das Wort "Inquisition" hört, geht bei fast allen Menschen "die Jalousie herunter". "Inquisition" ist böse, schlecht und gemein. Die Stasi war ein Scheißdreck dagegen.
Wenn wir klären wollen, was genau die "Inquisition" war (ist) und wenn wir wissen wollen, in welchem Umfang das schlechte Bild der Inquisition mit der tatsächlichen Inquisition zusammenhängt, müssen wir zuerst wissen, was das Wort "Inquisition" eigentlich bedeutet.
Der Name kommt vom lateinischen Wort "inquisitio" und dieses Wort bedeutet "Untersuchung". Es wird gewöhnlich verwendet für ein Tribunal, das die katholische Kirche einrichtete, um "Häresie" bzw. abweichende Standpunkte zu untersuchen. [1] Es gab allerdings keine einzelne universelle "Inquisition", im Laufe der Zeit gab es vier Institutionen, deren Zuständigkeit jeweils auf ein bestimmtes geographisches Gebiet beschränkt war. Der Zweck als auch die Methoden der Untersuchung differierten zuweilen sehr stark, so dass jede dieser vier "Inqusitionen" einen ganz individuellen Charakter hatte.
Nichtsdestoweniger gibt es gewisse Übereinstimmungen. Die Institutionen wurden entweder direkt vom "Heiligen Stuhl" gesteuert oder von den lokalen Bischöfen und Gesandten des Papstes. Was das Hauptziel der Untersuchungen betrifft, gab es zwei Motivationen: Das erste Ziel war, die Geständnisse von Häretikern zu erhalten, die angeblich gegen geltendes Kirchenrecht verstießen und die deswegen gezwungen wurden, zu büßen, um ihrer Seele das ewige Leben zu retten. Dies war jedoch eng mit dem zweiten Ziel verbunden, welches hauptsächlich auf die Einheit und zweifelsfreie Autorität der katholischen Kirche zielte. Die katholische Kirche tolerierte keine abweichenden Praktiken und Ideen [2]. Es ist wichtig zu bemerken, daß die Inquisition nicht selber die Bestrafung der Abweichler vornahm (der Grund war, dass Kirchenleuten verboten war, Blut zu vergießen), sondern diese der weltlichen Autorität übergab. [3] Die Kirche selber bevorzugte sehr den Widerruf des Häretikers gegenüber der Hinrichtung, weil ein vom Glauben Abgefallener letztlich mit einem möglichen Versagen von katholischer Lehre und Glauben verbunden werden könnte. [4].
Die mittelalterliche Inquisition
Das Hauptgebiet der ersten Inquisition, der "Mittelalterlichen Inquisition" war das heutige südliche Frankreich und die obere Nordhälfte des jetzigen Italien. Bereits im späten 12. Jahrhundert wurden kirchliche Untersuchungen durch Papst Lucius III. initiiert, um den angeblichen Häresien, zum Beispiel durch die Katharier und die Waldensianer, zu begegnen. [5] Es war der berüchtigte und gewaltsame Albensinger Kreuzzug, der zur offiziellen Gründung der ersten Inquisition 1230 führte, nachdem Papst Gregor IX. die Notwendigkeit einer kontrollierteren Strafverfolgung erkannt hatte. [6] Überwacht durch örtliche Bischöfe und ausgeführt von ausgewählten Kirchenleuten (Mönche), zum Beispiel den Dominikanern [7], entstand eine Organisation, die gründlich Protokoll führen mußte. Gleichzeitig setzte der Geltungsbereich nichtsdestoweniger einen kraftvollen Charakter voraus. Zuerstmal wurde ihnen das Recht gewährt, das Eigentum von angeklagten Häretikern zu beschlagnahmen; und natürlich führte allein dies zur Autorität, Häretiker zu "befragen". Das erste Ziel dieser Befragungen war es, den Angeklagten dazu zu bringen, ihre Sünden zu bekennen, um Vergebung zu erhalten. Um Geständnisse zu erhalten, schreckten die Kirchenautoritäten nicht davor zurück zu foltern, auch wenn die Methoden der Folter teilweise eingeschränkt waren (z.B. durfte die Folter nicht zu Tod, Blutverlust oder Verstümmelung führen); tatsächlich wird das übliche Stereotyp von einem skrupellosen Inquisitor nur zu einem sehr kleinen Teil von historischen Dokumenten gestützt. [8] Überdies reichte der Zwang alleine nicht aus, um ein Geständnis gültig zu machen. Daher war es notwendig, dass der Angeklagte sein Geständnis später zu wiederholen hatte. [9]
Ein Widerruf führte gewöhnlich zur Erteilung der Absolution, wohingegen ein unterbliebenes Geständnis die Exkommunikation und die Übergabe an die säkulare Gewalt zwecks Hinrichtung nach sich zog.
The
primary object of these questionings was bringing the accused to repent their 2 Kamen, Henry, The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision, London 1997, p. 49. 3 Lea, Henry Charles, A History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, Cambridge 1988. 4 Mai, Klaus-RM-|diger, Der Vatikan. Geschichte einer Weltmacht im Zwielicht, KM-vln 2010, p. 272. 5 Peters, Edward, Inquisition. New York, 1988 , pp. 43-47. 6 Peters, Inquisition, pp. 50-58. 7 Mai, Der Vatikan, p. 273. ^L 3 A renunciation usually led to the administration of absolution, whereas failure to confess entailed excommunication and the transfer to the secular authorities for execution.10. Although the Medieval Inquisition dealt with a number of local cases like the Catharans, Waldensians and the Beguines, as well as with some famous trials (Knights Templars, Joanne of Arc),11 its influence ultimately gradually decreased, so that it had been dissolved in most areas by the end of the 15th century. 3.) The Spanish Inquisition The contextual background of the Spanish Inquisition was an altogether different one. Following the completion of the Reconquista, Spain witnessed a vast number of conversions of Jews (Marranos) and Muslims (Moriscos) to Christianity as result of mounting anti-Semitic riots and persecutions.12 These "New Christians" (Conversos) were, however, labelled inferior to the "Old" or pure Christians (Limpieza de Sangre). Tensions ran high between these two groups;13 and so following a papal Bull in 1478 the Inquisition was officially established.14.Interest turned, however, rather swiftly to issues primarily involving heresy, most notably the investigation of secret Jewish practises supposedly conducted by Conversos still loyal to their 8 Infamous men such as Robert le Bourge or Konrad von Marburg rather were the exception, not least because the Holy See itself usually saw to the eventual dismissal of excessively and unnecessary violent clergymen. Mai, Der Vatikan, pp. 269-270. 9 Peters, Inquisition, pp. 63-65. 10 Lea, Henry Charles. A History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages. 11 Lea, A History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, p. 238; p. 338. 12 Mai, Der Vatikan, p. 371. 13 Mainly because many "pure" Spaniards resented the many new rights and privileges the Conversos had attained since their conversion. Peters, Inquisition, p. 82-84. 14 Peters, Inquisition, p. 85. ^L 4 former faith.15 Supervised by a General-Inquisitor, the Spanish inquisition set out to persecute in a rather severe manner a large number of suspicious Conversos16 as well as other people accused of blasphemous behaviour, diverging religious beliefs or of adhering to a different denomination like Protestantism.1718 However, the Spanish investigators usually went about their business by following strikingly thorough and methodical procedures. For one, the accused was given the chance to repent before the official inquiry commenced, and an arrest only took place after the collection of incriminating evidence and the hearing of several witnesses.19 Torture was certainly used, although on a rather infrequent basis and usually only when there existed sufficient evidence.20 In general torture mostly served the purpose of a threat without actually being widely applied.21In Spain the subsequent transfer of the convicted to the secular authorities was done in the characteristically special form of a public procession named auto-de-fe ("Act of faith");22 and it was primarily because of these processions that the Spanish Inquisition later received its overly violent image, for especially in artistic representations the auto-de-fe were often linked to torture and burnings at the stake.23 In truth, however, they were rather some sort of religious ritual, aiming to achieve public penance of the convicted heretics by guiding them through the streets while the gathered people were uttering prayers on their behalf.24 Frequently, there were also church services being held for them, and the actual executions only took place afterwards.25 Nevertheless these rather uneventful public showings ultimately managed to leave a lasting and largely distorted impression with many people. 15 Perez, The Spanish Inquisition: A History, France 2002, p. 27. 16 700 executions alone between 1481 and 1488. Perez, The Spanish Inquisition: A History, p. 27. 17 Peters, Inquisition, p. 86. 18 Whether there actually were a lot of genuine Protestants remains, however, doubtful: for one because there were only a relatively small number of reformed believers living in Spain at the time and also because people generally tended to denounce all too readily everyone as a Protestant who engaged in socially and morally unacceptable doings such as drunkenness or anticlerical expressions. Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition, p. 98. 19 Perez, Joseph. The Spanish Inquisition: A History, pp. 135- 141. 20 Peters, Inquisition, p. 92 21 Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition, pp. 174-192. 22 Peters, Inquisition, p. 94. 23 Mai, Der Vatikan, p. 372. 24 Peters, Inquisition, pp. 93-94. 25 Recent estimations suggest a total number of 2000 until 1530. Kamen, Henry, The Spanish Inquisition, p. 74; 192-213. ^L 5 4.) The Portuguese Inquisition Similar in structure and organisation was the Portuguese Inquisition, which may perhaps be perceived as some loosely-related, tough independent branch of the Spanish Inquisition. Officially approved of in 1555 through papal legitimation, it was likewise run by clergymen of the Catholic Church. Its principal objective was the persecution and trying of Sephardic Jews after their expulsion or escape from Spain. Thus the Inquisitors in Portugal also mainly sought to root out people having converted from Judaism to Christianity and who were being suspected of not strictly adhering to the Catholic faith.26 Its approach of dealing with the cases is largely identical to the Spanish proceedings, with the auto-de-fe here being an important element of the legal processes as well.27 5.) The Roman Inquisition The arguably most far-reaching of all Inquisitions was the Roman one, established in 1542 and which on account of its original purpose of forestalling the spread of Protestantism eventually was to become an important instrument of the catholic counter-reformation.28 Organised by a strict centralised hierarchy (Tribunals, Roman Curia, Congregation) with the ultimate control and authority resting directly in the hands of the Holy See itself,29 the Roman Inquisition played an essential role in keeping the influence of diverging beliefs on the Italian peninsula rather small (compared to other countries at least).30 Contrary to popular representations, however, the persecution, trial and execution of alleged witches was conducted by secular authorities of the time; and the Roman Inquisition itself only increasingly began to investigate 26 All in all 1175 people were executed between 1540 and 1794 following conviction by the Portuguese Inquisition. Lea, Henry James, A History of the Inquisition of Spain. 27 Lea, Henry James, A History of the Inquisition of Spain, pp. 241-258. 28 Peters, Inquisition, p. 108. 29 Thomsett, Michael, The Inquisition: A History, North Carolina 2010, p. 208. 30 Peters, Inquisition, p. 110. ^L 6 matters involving .magical heresy. from 1600 onwards.31 In addition the main focus lay in later years foremost on issues such as blasphemous behaviour, bigamy and apostasy,32 as well as the denunciation of views differing from established catholic doctrine, of which the trial of Galileo Galilei serves as a demonstrative example. Accordingly the banning or censoring of various religious and scientific works also formed an important part of the Inquisition's field of responsibility.33 In general Inquisitorial investigations were pursued severely and vigorously, yet they were actually less based on torture and violence than upon thorough questionings, the collection of evidence as well as a certain scepticism towards the possible motivation behind an accusation made against a specific person.34 In general torture was only reverted to in cases in which there existed abundant evidence; yet even then its use first had to be approved of by the Holy Office and remained bound to a code of strictly followed rules and procedures.35 Moreover, the tribunals kept detailed records of each investigation and even provided the accused with legal representation during the tria.l36 For more than 300 years the Roman Inquisition thus looked into a variety of cases, although only a relatively small number of these actually ended with a death sentence.37 6.) Conclusion Given the versatile character of the portrayed inquisitions, the question inevitably arises as to how exactly it came to be that they have since been regarded as an invariably evil instrument of the Catholic Church. Ultimately, there certainly are several factors which contributed to this conception, tough perhaps none bore a greater impact upon popular belief than the Protestant movement and its occasional instrumentalisation of the Inquisition as the ultimate evidence of catholic malevolence and repression. Naturally, the rigorous position of many catholic authorities in not tolerating any other 31 Peters, Inquisition, p. 111. 32 Thomsett, The Inquisition: A History, p. 208. 33 Mai, Der Vatikan, pp. 372-373. 34 Peters, Inquisition, p. 111. 35 Thomsett, The Inquisition: A History, p. 211. 36 Thomsett, The Inquisition: A History, pp. 210-211. 37 Thomsett, The Inquisition: A History, p. 212. ^L 7 denominations aided such a view quite significantly, all the more so since Protestants were indeed often classified as heretics and persecuted accordingly; and protestant documents therefore readily portrayed the Inquisition as an utterly inhumane institution. Just as important, however, is that the Inquisition was also embedded into the larger political context of the time, notably by being associated with catholic resistance to religious and intellectual freedom during the Dutch revolt while also being repeatedly criticized by such influential figures as William of Orange.38 Finally, Protestant European Powers usually welcomed unfavourable and potentially exaggerated depictions of its work as an effective tool for arising anti-Spanish sentiments (Black Legend).39 Additionally, the Inquisition as a symbol for Catholic intolerance was also widely promulgated by many famous philosophers (e.g. Voltaire), thinkers and politicians during the time of the Enlightenment, criticizing in particular the suppression of scientific research, intellectual and religious freedom as well as artistic and cultural creativity. Consequently the Inquisition was often portrayed as a source for social, political and economical unrest; and so this largely negative conception found its reflection in many contemporary works of literature and art, with the focus lying in particular on the atrocities committed by the Catholic Church.40 So was the Inquisition ultimately really as violent and atrocious as it is often depicted in popular art and culture? Unquestionably torture and forced coercion were an important part of the respective institutions in dealing with accusations of various sorts, yet with the emphasis here clearly lying on the fact that is was after all really only just one element . usually restricted and infrequently used at that . of the investigation process. Internal hierarchy, order, procedures and methods of the different Inquisitorial bodies really were too complex and indeed multi-faceted for them to be solely associated with terms pertaining to cruelty and death. Far from serving any potentially apologetic revision of the Inquisition's works, since it was after all responsible for the unjustified death of thousands of people guilty of no crime other than sharing different beliefs, a broader and undistorted view of its proceedings is 38 Peters, Inquisition, pp. 133-134/153. 39 Peters, Inquisition, p. 131-144. 40 Peters, Inquisition, pp. 154-156; 189. ^L 8 nevertheless necessary if one aspires to present the overall function and purpose of the Inquisition truly in compliance with the actual historical facts. 7.) Bibliography . Kamen, Henry, The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision, London 1997. . Lea, Henry Charles, A History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, Cambridge 1988. . Mai, Klaus-RM-|diger, Der Vatikan. Geschichte einer Weltmacht im Zwielicht, KM-vln 2010. . Perez, Joseph, The Spanish Inquisition: A History, France 2002. . Peters, Edward, Inquisition. New York, 1988. . Thomsett, Michael, The Inquisition: A History, North Carolina 2010. . http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=inquisition (Last accessed on December 9th, 2010) ^L
